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Proteins are the most abundant organic molecules of the living system. They hand off inwards every constituent of the prison theater cellphone in addition to flora virtually 50% of the cellular dry out weight. Proteins cast the structural in addition to constituent of life. The biological constituent of a poly peptide is due to its conformation, which is defined equally the 3 dimensional scheme of the atoms of a molecule. Four basic struct ural levels  are assigned to proteins: primary, secondary, 3rd and quarternary structures.  Protein Structure Primary Structure 1. Amino acids are joined together past times peptide linkage. 2. The sequence inwards which the amino acids are arranged inwards poly peptide is called mind structure. Secondary Structure 1. It arises due to the regular folding of the poly peptide chain due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding betwixt >C=O in addition to –NH2 groups 2. The peptide chain tin hold upward coiled to cast α helix const

The give-and-take poly peptide is derived from the Greek give-and-take ‘proteos’ pregnant first. The get upward indicates that they are real essential for the increment together with maintenance of the body. They occur inward the protoplasm of the living cells. Proteins fulfill a broad attain of  functions such every bit mechanical movements, transporting cellular necessities such every bit oxygen, metallic etc. Based on solubility they are classified into 2 groups: Fibrous together with Globular proteins.  Fibrous Proteins  ( Examples: Silk, Skin, wool etc ) 1. They are insoluble inward water, acids, bases etc. 2. They accept comparatively stronger intermolecular forces of attraction. 3. They accept thread similar structure. 4. They accept helical or canvass structure. Globular Proteins ( Examples: Egg albumin, casein of milk ) 1. They are soluble inward water, acids, bases etc. 2. They accept weak intermolecular hydrogen bonding. 3. They accept folded, b

DNA vs RNA DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) 1. Is the genetic cloth inwards all eukaryotes too Prokaryotes. 2. Predominantly located inwards the nucleus. Also seen inwards mitochondria,, chloroplasts etc. 3. It is double stranded. 4. The carbohydrate is deoxyribose. 5. The pyramidine bases are cytosine too thymine etc. RNA  (Ribonucleic acid) 1.Is the genetic cloth inwards certain  constitute viruses. 2. Found generally inwards nucleolus, ribosomes, too cytoplam. 3.It is unmarried stranded. 4. The carbohydrate is ribose. 5. The pyramidine bases are cytosine too uracil. Learn to a greater extent than :  DNA too RNA

Primary Lymphoid Organs  ( Example : Thymus, Bone marrow, Bursa of Fabricius) 1. The lymphoid stalk cells proliferate, differentiate together with mature 2. Contain either B cells or Tcells 3. Antigen cannot enter  in 4.They atrophy alongside age Secondary Lymphoid Organs  ( Example: Spleen, Lymph nodes, Peyers patches, Tonsils) 1. The lymphoid cells overstep away functional 2. Contain both T together with B cells. 3. Antigen enters inwards together with stimulates the lymphoid cells 4. They increase inwards size alongside age

Green Manure 1. It is a quick growing crop, cultivated too ploughed under, to contain it into the soil. 2. It provides organic affair also equally additional nitrogen, specially if it is a legume crop. 3.It is helpful inwards maintaining reason form, aeration too hydration. 4.It exercisers a protective activity against reason erosion too leaching. Example: Sunhemp, Horse gram, Cow pea, Sweet clover, Lentil etc Biofertilizer 1. Biofertlizer is a micro organism. 2. It brings nearly food enrichment of the soil. 3. No such business office is attributable to a biofertlizer 4. Symbiotic too not symbiotic bacteria increase the nitrogen content of the soil.(Cyanobacterial biofertilizer may hold upwards helpful inwards overcoming alkalinity too forbid reason erosion. Ectomycorrhiza may increase the surface expanse of absorption.) Example: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria (Blue dark-green algae)

Clone 1. Product of asexual reproduction 2. Monoparental 3. Formed yesteryear mitosis only 4. No recombination of gene 5. Exact replica of the bring upwards results Offspring 1.Product of asexual reproduction 2. Biparental 3.Meiosis cause got house prior to the formation of gametes followed yesteryear mitosis 4.Due to gamble of segregation in addition to gamble combination of genes, offspring demo genetic variation 5.Differs from parents

Algae a re a grouping of lower photosynthetic aquatic plants.  The torso of  algae  is called thallus. It may endure unicellular or multicellular. Generally the algae are classified into iii groups based on the presence of photosynthetic and accessory pigments. They are  brown,   red as well as light-green algae .  The branch of biological scientific discipline that deals alongside algal studies is called Phycology. Fungi  (sing. Fungus) are grouping of heterotrophic , spore bearing as well as non vascular organisms without chlorophyll.   Fungi are quite various inward their scheme ; roughly are ane celled similar yeast as well as others are real complex similar mushrooms.  Mycology is the branch of biological scientific discipline which deals alongside the report of fungi. Classification of Fungi Algae vs Fungi Algae Fungi They are by as well as large aquatic, institute inward fresh too every bit marine water. #algae Most of the fungi are terrestrial grow by as w

Metallic Conduction vs Electrolytic Conduction (Revised) Metallic Conduction 1. It is due to the period of time of electrons 2. It involves no chemic change 3. There is no transfer of matter 4. Conductance decreases alongside increases alongside increment inwards temperature. Metallic Conduction too Electrolytic Conduction Electrolytic Conduction 1. It is due to the period of time of ions 2. It involves chemic changes 3. It involves transfer of matter 4. Conductance increment alongside increment inwards temperature

Seed:  In the sexual reproduction of Spermatophyta (seed plants), the discrete trunk from which a novel constitute develops. Formed from a fertilized ovule, the seed comprises an outer coat (testa) that encloses a nutrient shop as well as an embryo plant. The food may hold out stored inwards the cotlydedons of the embryo itself or unopen to the embryo on the endosperm . Endospermic seeds  vs  Non endospermic seeds Endospermic seeds  (Example: Piper, Arabidopsis thaliana ) 1.  Seed amongst endosperm 2. Food storage of the seed is inwards the endosperm 3. Seed of dicots or monocots only Non endospermic seeds  (Example: Beans) 1.Seed amongst out endosperm 2.Food storage is in  the cotyledon 3. Seed of dicots

Living: 1. Movement : They exhibit displace due to internal causes 2. Respiration :They intermission downwardly organic materials alongside the publish of unloose energy for the activities. 3. Reproduction: They reproduce their ain kind Non Living: 1. Movement : They tin forcefulness out endure moving entirely mechanically past times external force. 2. Respiration :They may burn downwardly alongside the liberation of oestrus unloose energy instantaneously, non for their ain use. 3. Reproduction:They arrive at non reproduce. They may intermission into parts mechanically.

Flow of Intrinsic information 1. Information passes from genetic textile to cytoplasm of the same cell 2. Flow of data is controlled past times internal surroundings of the cell. 3. It helps inwards the production of a polypeptide either for structural or enzymatic function. Flow of Extrinsic information 1. Flow of data is from exterior to the interior of a cell. 2. Flow of data is controlled by extra cellular environment. 3. It activates a factor or a preformed enzymatic system.

Apoenzyme 1. It is the poly peptide component subdivision of a conjugate enzyme. 2. Apoenzyme is specific for an enzyme 3. It does non get got component subdivision inwards grouping transfer Coenzyme 1. It is loosely attached non poly peptide component subdivision of a conjugate enzyme. 2. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 coenzyme may get got component subdivision inwards the surgical physical care for of several enzymes performing a item laid upwardly of reactions(Example: NAD for several dehydrogenases) 3. Coenzyme helps an enzyme inwards coming inwards contact amongst the substrate as well as removes a production of the biochemical reaction for transfer to around other gist or reactant.

Competitive inhibition 1. Inhibition of enzyme activity due to a substrate analogue. 2. Inhibitor binds with  the active site of the enzyme. 3. It does non exert whatsoever useful business office inwards the living system Allosteric inhibition 1. Inhibition of enzyme activity is to a greater extent than frequently than non due to a production inwards the chain of reactions. 2. Inhibitor binds amongst the enzyme at a house other than the active site. 3. It helps in  controlling the excess formation of an cease product.

Seed:  The fertilized as well as mature ovule containing the embryo is called the seed. The seed coat is derived from the integuments of the the ovule.  Internal anatomy of a dicot (Bean) as well as monocot (Corn) seed.  Monocot Seed vs Dicot Seed Monocot seed (Example: Corn Seed) 1. Only 1 cotyledon introduce inwards the embryo 2. Cotyledons is sparse as well as small-scale as well as lacks nutrient materials 3. Endosperm is to a greater extent than oftentimes than non introduce as well as stores food 4. Radicle is protected yesteryear coleorhiza as well as plumule yesteryear coleoptile. Dicot seed  (Example: Bean Seed) 1. Two lateral cotyledons are introduce inwards the embryo axis  2. Cotyledons are fleshy as well as shop food 3. Endosperm is to a greater extent than oftentimes than non absent as well as lacks food 4.  Coleorhiza as well as coleoptiles are absent

Xylem is a conducting tissue inward plants that is meant to send H2O as well as minerals upwards from the roots to the leaf. It is a complex tissue composed of dissimilar types of cells. Xylem consists of xylem tracheids, vessels or tracheae, xylem fibers/xylem sclerenchyma (wood fibres) as well as xylem parenchyma (wood parenchyma). Secondary component of xylem is mechanical back upwards to the found body. Protoxylem vs Metaxylem Protoxylem 1. It is the outset formed main xylem 2. It matures much earlier the found organs has completed their elongation. 3. It is smaller inward diameter or smaller lumen. 4. No tylosis* formation 5. Annular as well as spiral thickening Metaxylem 1. It is the afterward formed main xylem 2. It matures after the found organs has completed their elongation. 3. It is larger inward diameter or large lumen compared to protoxylem. 4. Tylosis formation is real common 5. Pitted thickening * Tylosis: Bubble similar outgrowth of p

Reproduction is the mightiness of existing living organisms to create novel individuals which resemble their parents inwards a let out of characters. The aim of reproduction is the survival together with continuation of race. If at that spot is no reproduction, together with hence the species volition larn extinct simply afterward a unmarried generation. Two types of reproduction are observed inwards living organisms- asexual together with sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction: 1. It involves no formation together with fusion of gametes.  2. It is uniparental  3. Reproductive units are somatic cells of parent.  4. It involves exclusively mitotic divisions.  5. Offspring are genetically like to patents.  6. Often results inwards rapid production of large let out of offspring Sexual reproduction: 1. It involves formation together with fusion of gametes.  2. It is to a greater extent than oftentimes than non biparental

Meiosis I vs Meiosis II Meiosis I 1. It is heterotypic or reduction division. 2. The chromosomes stay inward the replicated state. 3.The seat out of chromosomes is reduced to half, i.e. , from diploid to haploid state. 4. Crossing over occurs which makes the 2 chromatids of a chromosome different. 5. It is complicated together with long duration division. 6. An interphase having both increase phases together with synthetic stage precedes meiosis I. 7. In prophase I, sis chromatids accept convergent arms. Meiosis II 1. It is homotypic or equational division. 2.The 2 chromatids of a replicated  chromosome separate. 3. The seat out of chromosomes stay the same, i.e., from haploid to haploid state. 4. The to a greater extent than oft than non dissimilar chromatids of a chromosome are separated. 5. It is unproblematic together with brusque duration division. 6. The interphase or interkinesis has solely increase phase. due south stage is absent. 7. In pr

Higher animals need greater in addition to speedier furnish of nutrients in addition to oxygen to their tissues in addition to equally good a rapid disposal of respiratory in addition to nitrogenous wastes. So they gain got developed blood equally a specialized circulatory fluid in addition to the circulatory organization consists of heart, blood in addition to blood vessels for conducting in addition to pumping blood to the tissues. The blood vascular organization may endure of 2 types. They are opened upwards circulatory organization in addition to unopen circulatory system.   Open circulatory system Open circulation is flora inwards invertebrates similar prawn, insects, in addition to molluscs. 1. Blood flows through opened upwards spaces called lacunae in addition to sinuses 2. Blood flows at a really irksome velocity 3. Body cavity is filled amongst blood (Haemocoel*) 4. Internal organs are bathed yesteryear blood 5. Blood takes long fourth dimension to c

Adaptation is a characteristic characteristic of all living organisms. The useful structural, functional or behavioural changes developed inward a living organism over long catamenia of fourth dimension in addition to hence every 2d to adjust itself according to a surroundings are called adaptations. On the footing of their nature in addition to role inward evolution, the adaptations tending classified into ii categories: brusk make (temporary) in addition to long make (Permanent)  adaptations. Short make adaptations: These are temporary changes These are developed inward reply to temporary alter inward the environment These are non inherited deoxyribonucleic acid is non changed No role inward evolution Examples: During wintertime season, hibernating animals suspend all their metabolic activities. When favourable weather come, the animals perish active again. Plant increase reply similar phototropism, geotropism etc. shown inward reply to stimuli. L

Classification is a procedure which mankind naturally in addition to instinctively carries out, in addition to which has been carried out from the really beginning, for the accurate identification of food, predators, fuel edifice materials etc. in addition to is essential for their survival. Classifying the seat out of plants species is bully task.  Around 3000,000 species of dark-green plants, over 100000 fungi in addition to a few K bacteria in addition to other microscopic organisms are already recognized. There are 3 types of classifications. They are artificial, natural in addition to Phylogenetic. Artificial classification 1. Only a few characters are considered 2. Members of dissimilar groups are unremarkably non like inward hereditary pattern 3. Stable classification 4. Provides alone express information 5. Cannot add together novel work 6. Difficult for identifying a item species or genera 7. Not related phylogenetically Example: Linnaeus classified plan

artificial, natural and Phylogenetic   . Natural vs Phylogenetic Natural Classification Based on several constant characters Used for unproblematic identification Evolutionary sequence non considered Example: Bentham as well as Hooker’s classification Phylogenetic Classification Along amongst several constant characters, evolutionary sequence are every 2d good considered. Used for studying  human relationship Evolutionary affinities are taken into account Example:  Eicher’s,  Engler as well as Prantl ,  Hutischson’s and Whittaker’s classification

Spore: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 haploid reproductive cell, unremarkably unicellular, capable of developing into adult without fusion alongside about other cell. Mitospores (Asexual spores) 1. These spores are formed yesteryear mitosis from the nurture protoplast 2. Chromosome position out of the immature lady jail cellular telephone is same every bit that of the nurture jail cellular telephone 3. The private formed upon germination of mitospores are genetically identical to the nurture 4. Purely vegetative in addition to asexual inwards graphic symbol Meiospores (Sexual spores) 1. These spores are formed yesteryear meiosis from the nurture diploid protoplast 2. Chromosome position out of the immature lady jail cellular telephone is one-half the position out every bit that of the nurture cell, hence ever haploid 3. The private formed upon germination of meisospores are genetically genetically in addition to functionally dissimilar from the nurture 4. Form

The human skeletal organisation consists of bones together with cartilages of diverse types. Bones together with cartilages are supporting connexion tissues. They provide support, surface for the attachment of muscles together with protection to many vital organs similar brain, heart, eyes etc. together with too grade a definite course of written report together with shape of the body. Moreover the skeleton plays a vital business office inwards locomotion together with movements. Cartilage 1. It is soft elastic together with flexible 2. Cells are known every bit chondrocytes 3. Matrix is non vascular 4. Matrix is a homogenous majority without lamellae 5. Matrix has a poly peptide called chondrin 6. Matrix is solely organic 7. Matrix may or may non convey calcium salts 8. Each Cartilage lacks blood furnish except inwards perichondrium 9. Growth designing of cartilage is unidirectional 10. Chondrocytes lack protoplasmic procedu

Muscles, the organs of the muscular arrangement are the specialized cells which are responsible for the get in addition to locomotion. Human body contains to a greater extent than than 600 muscles in addition to constitutes 43% of the trunk weight. Muscles are characterized by properties such every bit excitability, contractility, extensibility in addition to elasticity. In humans , the muscles are broadly classified into skeletal muscles, smoothen muscles in addition to cardiac muscles. Based on the color  the skeletal muscles are classified into ii types. They are ruby-red muscle(red meat or tedious muscle) in addition to white musculus (white meat or fast muscle). Red muscles (Example: extensor musculus on dorsum of human body) 1. Red muscles are sparse musculus fibres 2. Red inwards color due to the presence of large amount of myoglobin 3. Slow in addition to sustained contraction 4. Depend on aerobic metabolism for unloosen energy (oxidative phosphorylation) 5.

Blood is a fluid connector tissue. It is an extremely complex nub carrying a broad diversity of cells as well as substances to all areas of he body. Blood is oftentimes described equally seat of the soul since it performs several vital functions of the torso . H5N1 normal  well for yous human has virtually 5.5 litres of blood. Blood is formed of plasma as well as formed elements such equally RBC, WBC as well as blood platelets Functions of blood Regulate torso temperature. Maintains a constant pH as well as H2O balance Defence against pH as well as H2O balance Transport digested nutrient materials, respiratory gases as well as waste materials materials Lymphatic system consists of lymph as well as lymph vessels (lymphatics). The fluid inwards the spaces betwixt tissue cells is called interstitial fluid or tissue fluid or extra cellular fluid. Lymph (L. lympha, clear water) a colourless fluid derived from blood past times filtration through ca

Proteins are made upwards of uncomplicated units called amino acids. Amino acids absorbed from nutrient are used to synthesize structural proteins (cell membrane proteins), functional proteins (enzymes), poly peptide hormones, carrier poly peptide etc. proteins are essential for growth, evolution too tissue repair. Essential amino acids 1. Cannot hold out synthesized inward the animate beingness trunk 2. It should hold out obtained from the diet ( hence called every bit essential amino acids) 3. Essential amino acids  are Arginine (Arg/R), Histidine (His/H), Isoleucine (Ile/I), Leucine (Leu/L), Lysine (Lys/K), Methionine (Met/M), Phenylalanine (Phe/F), Threonine (Thr/T), Tryptophan (Trp/W), too Valine (Val/V). Non-Essential amino acids 1. Can hold out synthesized inward the animate beingness trunk 2. It tin hold out synthesised inward the trunk (therefore called every bit non-essential amino acids) 3. Non-essential amino acids are Alanine (Ala/A), Asparagine (As

In closed circulatory system blood is circulated through shut vessels such every bit arteries, veins too capillaries. Arteries All blood vessels leading from the pump are called arteries or the blood vessels which deport blood from the pump to diverse trunk organs are called arteries. All arteries deport oxygenated blood (pure blood) except pulmonary artery, which carries deoxygenated blood. The wall of the artery consists of iii layers, namely tunica interna, tunica media too tunica externa.   Veins The vessels which deport blood from diverse trunk organs to the pump is known every bit veins. All veins deport deoxygenated blood (impure blood) except pulmonary vein, which carries oxygenated blood(pure blood) Difference Between Artery too Vein Artery 1. Vessels which deport blood from the pump to diverse trunk parts 2. Arteries deport oxygenated blood from the pump except pulmonary artery 3. Arteries bring thick elastic muscular walls 4. Valves are ab

The term biodiversity refers to the totality of genes, species in addition to ecosystems of a region. Conservation of biodiversity is done inwards 2 ways In-situ   in addition to Ex-situ conservation. In situ conservation The conservation of genetic resources through their maintenance inside natural or fifty-fifty human made ecosystems inwards which they occur, is called insitu conservation. 1. The conservation inside natural or fifty-fifty manmade ecosystems where the organism occur. 2. Conservation inwards the natural surround itself 3. Include National parks, Sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves etc Ex situ conservation 1. The conservation exterior their habitats past times perpetuating sample populations. 2. Conservation inwards an artificially created surround 3. Include Zoos, Botanical gardens, Gene banks, Aquarium, Cryopreservation etc.

Invivo, In vitro too In silico are iii mutual damage used inwards biological sciences particularly inwards labs. In vivo Model Organism 1. In Latin agency “within the living” 2. In vivo experiment involves the experimentation using a whole living organism Example: Use of model organisms such mice, rabbit, apes etc where drugs are straight injected into the trunk (drug testing). In vitro 1. In Latin agency “within the glass” 2. In vitro experiment involves the experimentation exterior whole living organism inwards a controlled laboratory conditions Example: Cell civilization experiments inwards Petri dishes, or about experiments inwards exam tubes.